Sharing agreements have been promoted by a number of national organizations (McCambridge et al., 2006; Solomon et al., 2009; Leadership for Healthy Communities, 2010; National Physical Activity Plan, 2010; White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity, 2010; HHS, 2012) as a means of providing access to existing physical activity facilities in the neighborhood for communities such as rural or low-income areas that may have little or no such facilities available. Sharing existing facilities is also more cost-effective than building new structures in resource-poor areas. Despite the promise of this strategy and the considerable attention and promotion it has received at the national level, little is known about its effectiveness in increasing physical activity. A systematic review of 13 studies on physical activity policies and legislation in schools (including sport policy) found that the majority of studies focused on policy implementation (Robertson-Wilson et al., 2012). To date, only a handful of studies have examined the effects of mandates requiring 150 minutes of physical education per week (Slater et al., 2012) on student activity levels (Cawley et al., 2007; Barroso et al., 2009). Health (CATCH). This rigorously designed, 3-year randomized controlled intervention included improvements to physical education, a health promotion program and changes to food services, and a family component. Results showed more intense physical activity during physical education and more vigorous daily physical activity in the intervention groups compared to controls (Luepker et al., 1996). (See Box 7-2 for a more detailed description of this intervention.) Van Sluijs, E.
M. F., V. A. Fearne, C. Mattocks, C. Riddoch, S. J. Griffin and A. Ness. 2009. The contribution of active travel to children`s physical activity: cross-sectional results of the ALSPAC study (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children). Preventive Medicine 48(6):519-524.
Weight and body mass index Measures to promote sport in schools can help reduce the childhood obesity epidemic. Students who exercise are less likely to be overweight or obese than those who do not participate (Ointment et al., 2002; Levin et al., 2003; Menschik et al., 2008; Drake, 2012). Participation in exercise has also been shown to improve eating behaviour (French et al., 1994; Harrison and Narayan, 2003; Coleman et al., 2008). While it is intuitive that increasing physical activity through afterschool programs would have a positive impact on weight, there is no conclusive evidence of a temporal effect. However, research shows that adolescent weight is an important facilitator of physical activity in extracurricular settings. Trost and colleagues (2001, 2008a) found that obese students who participated in an after-school program participated significantly less actively in organized outdoor activities than their non-obese counterparts. More research is needed to understand the activity preferences of overweight children who participate in after-school programs. Online physical education offers another way to help students meet physical education standards if they don`t have room for face-to-face classes on their schedule, need to catch up, or are simply looking for an alternative to traditional physical education. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful form of teaching for students with poor time management or technological skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012), online learning is changing the educational landscape despite limited empirical research and conflicting results as to its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey of 45 online physical education teachers, the authors found that nearly three-quarters of the classes they taught did not meet the national guideline for high schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week.
Most classes required physical activity 3 days a week, while six classes required no physical activity. Teachers have expressed support, hesitation and even resistance to online physical education. Harris, K. C., L. K. Kuramoto, M. Schulzer, and J. E.
Retallack. 2009. Effect of School-based Physical Activity Interventions on Body Mass Index in Children: A Meta-Analysis. Canadian Medical Association Journal 180 (7): 719-726. School policies that promote an environment that promotes physical activity and shortens sedentary time are promising strategies for preventing obesity (McKenzie et al., 2000; Leung et al., 2012). In some children, changes in sedentary behaviour may be important in altering energy balance and preventing obesity (Epstein et al., 2004, 2006). A recent review shows that even taking into account the diverse and limited methods of intervention studies, evidence indicates the effectiveness of strategies to reduce general sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents (Leung et al., 2012). However, much of the existing research consists of studies at home, in the neighbourhood or in the community environment (Robinson, 1999; Epstein et al., 2006; Robinson and Borzekowski, 2006; Leung et al., 2012; Tandon et al., 2012). Few studies examine interventions that involve modifying the physical environment and school policies to support regular physical activity and improved eating practices (Simon et al., 2004; Newton et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2012). New research is being conducted on the link between the school environment and healthy eating (Huang, 2013), with plans to broaden the focus on physical activity and reduce sedentary behavior.
For primary schools, healthy eating design guidelines are being developed to promote spatially organized indoor spaces conducive to learning and health. Cohen, D., M. Scott, F. Z. Wang, T. McKenzie, and D. Porter. 2008. School design and physical activity in middle school girls. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 5(5): 719-731.
There are several models of concept-based physical education programs for middle and high schools. These include Fitness for Life: Middle School (Corbin et al., 2007); Personal fitness for you (Stokes & Schultz, 2002); Get active! Get in shape! (Stokes & Schultz, 2009); Personal fitness: looking good, feeling good (Williams, 2005); and Fundamentals of Fitness (Rainey & Murray, 2005). Program activities are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve healthy fitness through regular physical activity of high or medium intensity. Isolating the impact of classroom physical activity interventions on the overall physical activity of children and youth is a frustrating undertaking.